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3D X-ray diffraction (3DXRD) is a microscopy technique using hard [[Physics:X-rays|X-rays]] (with energy in the 30-100 keV range) to investigate the internal structure of polycrystalline materials in three dimensions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Poulsen | first1 = H. F. | last2 = Nielsen | first2 = S. F. | last3 = Lauridsen | first3 = E. M. | last4 = Schmidt | first4 = S. | last5 = Suter | first5 = R. M. | last6 = Lienert | first6 = U. | last7 = Margulies | first7 = L. | last8 = Lorentzen | first8 = T. | last9 = Juul Jensen | first9 = D. | year = 2001 | title = Three-dimensional maps of grain boundaries and the stress state of individual grains in polycrystals and powders | journal = Journal of Applied Crystallography | volume = 34 | issue = 6| pages = 751–756 | doi=10.1107/s0021889801014273| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=3DXRD_book>{{Cite book | doi=10.1007/b97884|title = Three-Dimensional X-Ray Diffraction Microscopy| volume=205|series = Springer Tracts in Modern Physics|year = 2004|last1 = Poulsen|first1 = Henning| isbn=978-3-540-22330-6}}</ref> For a given sample, 3DXRD returns the shape, juxtaposition, and orientation of the crystallites (''"grains"'') it is made of. 3DXRD allows investigating micrometer- to millimetre-sized samples with resolution ranging from hundreds of nanometers to micrometers. Other techniques employing X-rays to investigate the internal structure of polycrystalline materials include X-ray diffraction contrast tomography (DCT)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ludwig|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Schmidt|first2=Søren|last3=Lauridsen|first3=Erik Mejdal|last4=Poulsen|first4=Henning Friis|date=2008-04-01|title=X-ray diffraction contrast tomography: a novel technique for three-dimensional grain mapping of polycrystals. I. Direct beam case|journal=Journal of Applied Crystallography|language=en|volume=41|issue=2|pages=302–309|doi=10.1107/s0021889808001684|issn=0021-8898}}</ref> and high energy X-ray diffraction (HEDM).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2006-12-01|last1=Suter|first1=RM|last2=Hennessy|first2=D|last3=Xiao|first3=C|last4=Lienert|first4=U |s2cid=6298472|title=Forward modeling method for microstructure reconstruction using x-ray diffraction microscopy: Single-crystal verification|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=77|issue=12|pages=123905–123905–12|doi=10.1063/1.2400017|issn=0034-6748|bibcode=2006RScI...77l3905S}}</ref>
Compared with destructive techniques, e.g. three-dimensional electron backscatter diffraction (3D EBSD),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zaefferer|first1=S.|last2=Wright|first2=S. I.|last3=Raabe|first3=D.|date=2008-02-01|title=Three-Dimensional Orientation Microscopy in a Focused Ion Beam–Scanning Electron Microscope: A New Dimension of Microstructure Characterization|journal=Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A|language=en|volume=39|issue=2|pages=374–389|doi=10.1007/s11661-007-9418-9|issn=1073-5623|bibcode=2008MMTA...39..374Z|doi-access=free}}</ref> with which the sample is serially sectioned and imaged, 3DXRD and similar X-ray nondestructive techniques have the following advantages:
* They require less sample preparation, thus limiting the introduction of new structures in the sample.
* They can be used to investigate larger samples and to employ more complicated sample environments.
* They enable to study how 3D grain structures evolve with time.
* Since measurements do not alter the sample, different types of analysis can be made in sequence.

== Experimental setup ==

3DXRD measurements are performed using various experimental geometries. The classical 3DXRD setup is similar to the conventional tomography setting used at synchrotrons:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poulsen|first=Henning Friis|date=2012-12-01|title=An introduction to three-dimensional X-ray diffraction microscopy|journal=Journal of Applied Crystallography|language=en|volume=45|issue=6|pages=1084–1097|doi=10.1107/s0021889812039143|issn=0021-8898}}</ref> the sample, mounted on a rotation stage, is illuminated using quasi-parallel monochromatic X-ray beam. Each time a certain grain within the sample satisfies the Bragg condition, a diffracted beam is generated. This signal is transmitted through the sample and collected by two-dimensional detectors. Since different grains satisfy the Bragg condition at different angles, the sample is rotated to probe the complete sample structure. Crucial for 3DXRD is the idea to mimic a three-dimensional detector by positioning a number of two-dimensional detectors at different distances from the centre of rotation of the sample, and exposing these either simultaneously (many detectors are semi-transparent to hard X-rays) or at different times.

At present (April 2017), a 3DXRD microscope is installed at the Materials Science beamline<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.esrf.eu/UsersAndScience/Experiments/StructMaterials/ID11/|title=ID11 - Materials science beamline|website=www.esrf.eu|language=en|access-date=2017-04-13}}</ref> of the [[Organization:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility|ESRF]].

== Software ==

To determine the crystallographic orientation of the grains in the considered sample, the following software packages are in use: Fable<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourceforge.net/projects/fable/|title=fable|website=SourceForge|language=en|access-date=2017-04-13}}</ref> and GrainSpotter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=Søren|date=2014-02-01|title=GrainSpotter: a fast and robust polycrystalline indexing algorithm|journal=Journal of Applied Crystallography|language=en|volume=47|issue=1|pages=276–284|doi=10.1107/s1600576713030185|issn=1600-5767|url=https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/89196059/prod11393943416416.rg5034_1_.pdf}}</ref> Reconstructing the 3D shape of the grains is nontrivial and three approaches are available to do so, respectively based on simple back-projection, forward projection, [[Physics:Algebraic reconstruction technique|algebraic reconstruction technique]] and [[Monte Carlo method]]-based reconstruction.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Neutrons and Synchrotron Radiation in Engineering Materials Science: From Fundamentals to Applications, 2nd Edition|isbn=978-3-527-33592-3|last1=Staron|first1=Peter|last2=Schreyer|first2=Andreas|last3=Clemens|first3=Helmut|last4=Mayer|first4=Svea|date=2017-06-19}}</ref>

== Applications ==

With 3DXRD, it is possible to study ''in situ'' the time evolution of materials under different conditions. Among others, the technique has been used to map the elastic strains and stresses in a pre-strained nickel-titanium wire.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sedmák|first1=P.|last2=Pilch|first2=J.|last3=Heller|first3=L.|last4=Kopeček|first4=J.|last5=Wright|first5=J.|last6=Sedlák|first6=P.|last7=Frost|first7=M.|last8=Šittner|first8=P.|date=2016-08-05|title=Grain-resolved analysis of localized deformation in nickel-titanium wire under tensile load|journal=Science|language=en|volume=353|issue=6299|pages=559–562|doi=10.1126/science.aad6700|issn=0036-8075|pmid=27493178|bibcode=2016Sci...353..559S}}</ref>

== Related techniques ==

The scientists involved in developing 3DXRD contributed to the development of three other three-dimensional non-destructive techniques for the material sciences, respectively using electrons and neutrons as a probe: three-dimensional orientation mapping in the transmission electron microscope (3D-OMiTEM),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=H. H.|last2=Schmidt|first2=S.|last3=Poulsen|first3=H. F.|last4=Godfrey|first4=A.|last5=Liu|first5=Z. Q.|last6=Sharon|first6=J. A.|last7=Huang|first7=X.|date=2011-05-13|title=Three-Dimensional Orientation Mapping in the Transmission Electron Microscope|journal=Science|language=en|volume=332|issue=6031|pages=833–834|doi=10.1126/science.1202202|issn=0036-8075|pmid=21566190|bibcode=2011Sci...332..833L}}</ref> time-of-flight 3D neutron diffraction for multigrain crystallography (ToF 3DND)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/id(27f25774-dd00-4cc9-a79f-3953d288d063).html|title=Time-of-flight 3D Neutron Diffraction for Multigrain Crystallography|last=Cereser|first=Alberto|date=2016-01-01|publisher=Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cereser|first1=Alberto|last2=Strobl|first2=Markus|last3=Hall|first3=Stephen A.|last4=Steuwer|first4=Axel|last5=Kiyanagi|first5=Ryoji|last6=Tremsin|first6=Anton S.|last7=Knudsen|first7=Erik B.|last8=Shinohara|first8=Takenao|last9=Willendrup|first9=Peter K.|date=2017-08-25|title=Time-of-Flight Three Dimensional Neutron Diffraction in Transmission Mode for Mapping Crystal Grain Structures|journal=Scientific Reports|language=En|volume=7|issue=1|pages=9561|doi=10.1038/s41598-017-09717-w|pmid=28842660|pmc=5572055|issn=2045-2322}}</ref> and laue 3D neutron diffraction (Laue3DND).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Raventos|first1=M.|last2=Tovar|first2=M.|last3=Medarde|first3=M.|last4=Shang|first4=T.|last5=Strobl|first5=M.|last6=Samothrakitis|first6=S.|last7=Pomjakushina|first7=E.|last8=Gruenzweig|first8=C.|last9=Schmidt|first9=S.|date=2019-03-18|title=Laue three dimensional neutron diffraction|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-41071-x|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Using a system of lenses, the synchrotron technique dark-field X-ray microscopy (DFXRM)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Simons|first1=H.|last2=King|first2=A.|last3=Ludwig|first3=W.|last4=Detlefs|first4=C.|last5=Pantleon|first5=W.|last6=Schmidt|first6=S.|last7=Snigireva|first7=I.|last8=Snigirev|first8=A.|last9=Poulsen|first9=H. F.|date=2015-01-14|title=Dark-field X-ray microscopy for multiscale structural characterization|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=6|pages=6098|doi=10.1038/ncomms7098|issn=2041-1723|pmc=4354092|pmid=25586429|bibcode=2015NatCo...6.6098S}}</ref> extends the capabilities of 3DXRD, allowing to focus on a deeply embedded single grain and to reconstruct its 3D structure and its crystalline properties. DFXRM is under development at the European Synchrotron Research Facility ([[Organization:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility|ESRF]]), beamline ID06.<ref>{{cite web |title=Research centre for the application of steel dives into the dark-field microscopy at ESRF |url=http://www.esrf.eu/home/Industry/industry-news/content-news/esrf-news-list/research-centre-for-the-application-of-steel-dives-into-the-dark-field-microscopy-at-esrf.html |website=www.esrf.eu |publisher=[[Organization:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility|European Synchrotron Radiation Facility]] |access-date=2022-01-28}}</ref>

In a laboratory setting, 3D grain maps using X-rays as a probe can be obtained using laboratory diffraction contrast tomography (LabDCT), a technique derived from 3DXRD.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McDonald|first1=S. A.|last2=Holzner|first2=C.|last3=Lauridsen|first3=E. M.|last4=Reischig|first4=P.|last5=Merkle|first5=A. P.|last6=Withers|first6=P. J.|date=2017-07-12|title=Microstructural evolution during sintering of copper particles studied by laboratory diffraction contrast tomography (LabDCT)|journal=Scientific Reports|language=En|volume=7|issue=1|pages=5251|doi=10.1038/s41598-017-04742-1|pmid=28701768|pmc=5507940|issn=2045-2322}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Physics:Diffraction|Diffraction]]
* Diffraction Tomography
* [[Physics:Synchrotron|Synchrotron]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}


[[Category:Microscopy]]
[[Category:X-ray instrumentation]]

{{Sourceattribution|3DXRD|1}}

Physics:3DXRD - Revision history

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